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This is an alias for -filter:a , see the -filter option. If some input channel layout is not known, try to guess only if it corresponds to at most the specified number of channels. For example, 2 tells to ffmpeg to recognize 1 channel as mono and 2 channels as stereo but not 6 channels as 5. The default is to always try to guess. Use 0 to disable all guessing. As an input option, blocks all subtitle streams of a file from being filtered or being automatically selected or mapped for any output.

As an output option, disables subtitle recording i. Fix subtitles durations. For each subtitle, wait for the next packet in the same stream and adjust the duration of the first to avoid overlap.

This is necessary with some subtitles codecs, especially DVB subtitles, because the duration in the original packet is only a rough estimate and the end is actually marked by an empty subtitle frame. Failing to use this option when necessary can result in exaggerated durations or muxing failures due to non-monotonic timestamps. Note that this option will delay the output of all data until the next subtitle packet is decoded: it may increase memory consumption and latency a lot.

Create one or more streams in the output file. A – character before the stream identifier creates a “negative” mapping. It disables matching streams from already created mappings. A trailing? Note the map will still fail if an invalid input file index is used; such as if the map refers to a non-existent input. This option may be specified multiple times, each adding more streams to the output file.

Any given input stream may also be mapped any number of times as a source for different output streams, e. The streams are created in the output in the same order in which the -map options are given on the commandline. If you have two audio streams in the first input file, these streams are identified by and You can use -map to select which streams to place in an output file.

For example:. To select the stream with index 2 from input file a. To map the video and audio streams from the first input, and using the trailing? Allow input streams with unknown type to be copied instead of failing if copying such streams is attempted. This option is deprecated and will be removed. It can be replaced by the pan filter. In some cases it may be easier to use some combination of the channelsplit , channelmap , or amerge filters.

Map an audio channel from a given input to an output. For example, assuming INPUT is a stereo audio file, you can switch the two audio channels with the following command:.

The following example splits the channels of a stereo input into two separate streams, which are put into the same output file:. It is therefore not currently possible, for example, to turn two separate mono streams into a single stereo stream.

However splitting a stereo stream into two single channel mono streams is possible. If you need this feature, a possible workaround is to use the amerge filter. For example, if you need to merge a media here input. To map the first two audio channels from the first input, and using the trailing?

Set metadata information of the next output file from infile. Note that those are file indices zero-based , not filenames. A metadata specifier can have the following forms:. In an input metadata specifier, the first matching stream is copied from. In an output metadata specifier, all matching streams are copied to. These default mappings are disabled by creating any mapping of the relevant type. A negative file index can be used to create a dummy mapping that just disables automatic copying.

For example to copy metadata from the first stream of the input file to global metadata of the output file:. Note that simple 0 would work as well in this example, since global metadata is assumed by default.

If no chapter mapping is specified, then chapters are copied from the first input file with at least one chapter. Use a negative file index to disable any chapter copying. Show benchmarking information at the end of an encode. Shows real, system and user time used and maximum memory consumption. Maximum memory consumption is not supported on all systems, it will usually display as 0 if not supported.

Show benchmarking information during the encode. Its value is a floating-point positive number which represents the maximum duration of media, in seconds, that should be ingested in one second of wallclock time. Default value is zero and represents no imposed limitation on speed of ingestion.

Value 1 represents real-time speed and is equivalent to -re. Mainly used to simulate a capture device or live input stream e. Should not be used with a low value when input is an actual capture device or live stream as it may cause packet loss.

For compatibility reasons some of the values for vsync can be specified as numbers shown in parentheses in the following table. Frames are passed through with their timestamp or dropped so as to prevent 2 frames from having the same timestamp. As passthrough but destroys all timestamps, making the muxer generate fresh timestamps based on frame-rate.

Note that the timestamps may be further modified by the muxer, after this. With -map you can select from which stream the timestamps should be taken. You can leave either video or audio unchanged and sync the remaining stream s to the unchanged one. Frame drop threshold, which specifies how much behind video frames can be before they are dropped.

In frame rate units, so 1. The default is One possible usecase is to avoid framedrops in case of noisy timestamps or to increase frame drop precision in case of exact timestamps. Audio sync method. Pad the output audio stream s. This is the same as applying -af apad. Argument is a string of filter parameters composed the same as with the apad filter.

Do not process input timestamps, but keep their values without trying to sanitize them. In particular, do not remove the initial start time offset value. Note that, depending on the vsync option or on specific muxer processing e. This means that using e. Specify how to set the encoder timebase when stream copying. The time base is copied to the output encoder from the corresponding input demuxer.

This is sometimes required to avoid non monotonically increasing timestamps when copying video streams with variable frame rate.

Set the encoder timebase. This field can be provided as a ratio of two integers e. Note that this option may require buffering frames, which introduces extra latency.

The -shortest option may require buffering potentially large amounts of data when at least one of the streams is “sparse” i. This option controls the maximum duration of buffered frames in seconds. Larger values may allow the -shortest option to produce more accurate results, but increase memory use and latency. Timestamp error delta threshold. Assign a new stream-id value to an output stream. This option should be specified prior to the output filename to which it applies.

For the situation where multiple output files exist, a streamid may be reassigned to a different value. Set bitstream filters for matching streams. Use the -bsfs option to get the list of bitstream filters. Specify Timecode for writing.

Define a complex filtergraph, i. For simple graphs — those with one input and one output of the same type — see the -filter options.

An unlabeled input will be connected to the first unused input stream of the matching type. Output link labels are referred to with -map. Unlabeled outputs are added to the first output file. Here [0:v] refers to the first video stream in the first input file, which is linked to the first main input of the overlay filter. Similarly the first video stream in the second input is linked to the second overlay input of overlay.

Assuming there is only one video stream in each input file, we can omit input labels, so the above is equivalent to. Furthermore we can omit the output label and the single output from the filter graph will be added to the output file automatically, so we can simply write. As a special exception, you can use a bitmap subtitle stream as input: it will be converted into a video with the same size as the largest video in the file, or x if no video is present.

Note that this is an experimental and temporary solution. It will be removed once libavfilter has proper support for subtitles. This option enables or disables accurate seeking in input files with the -ss option. It is enabled by default, so seeking is accurate when transcoding. This option enables or disables seeking by timestamp in input files with the -ss option.

It is disabled by default. If enabled, the argument to the -ss option is considered an actual timestamp, and is not offset by the start time of the file. This matters only for files which do not start from timestamp 0, such as transport streams. For input, this option sets the maximum number of queued packets when reading from the file or device. By default ffmpeg only does this if multiple inputs are specified.

For output, this option specified the maximum number of packets that may be queued to each muxing thread. Print sdp information for an output stream to file. Requires at least one of the output formats to be rtp. Allows discarding specific streams or frames from streams. Any input stream can be fully discarded, using value all whereas selective discarding of frames from a stream occurs at the demuxer and is not supported by all demuxers.

Set fraction of decoding frame failures across all inputs which when crossed ffmpeg will return exit code Crossing this threshold does not terminate processing. Range is a floating-point number between 0 to 1. While waiting for that to happen, packets for other streams are buffered. This option sets the size of this buffer, in packets, for the matching output stream.

The default value of this option should be high enough for most uses, so only touch this option if you are sure that you need it. This is a minimum threshold until which the muxing queue size is not taken into account. Defaults to 50 megabytes per stream, and is based on the overall size of packets passed to the muxer.

If filter format negotiation requires a conversion, the initialization of the filters will fail. Conversions can still be performed by inserting the relevant conversion filter scale, aresample in the graph. Declare the number of bits per raw sample in the given output stream to be value. Setting values that do not match the stream properties may result in encoding failures or invalid output files. Check the presets directory in the FFmpeg source tree for examples.

The fpre option takes the filename of the preset instead of a preset name as input and can be used for any kind of codec. For the vpre , apre , and spre options, the options specified in a preset file are applied to the currently selected codec of the same type as the preset option.

The argument passed to the vpre , apre , and spre preset options identifies the preset file to use according to the following rules:. First ffmpeg searches for a file named arg. For example, if the argument is libvpxp , it will search for the file libvpxp. For example, if you select the video codec with -vcodec libvpx and use -vpre p , then it will search for the file libvpxp. They work similar to ffpreset files, but they only allow encoder- specific options.

When the pre option is specified, ffmpeg will look for files with the suffix. For example, if you select the video codec with -vcodec libvpx and use -pre p , then it will search for the file libvpxp. If no such file is found, then ffmpeg will search for a file named arg. Note that you must activate the right video source and channel before launching ffmpeg with any TV viewer such as xawtv by Gerd Knorr. You also have to set the audio recording levels correctly with a standard mixer.

The Y files use twice the resolution of the U and V files. They are raw files, without header. They can be generated by all decent video decoders. You must specify the size of the image with the -s option if ffmpeg cannot guess it. Each frame is composed of the Y plane followed by the U and V planes at half vertical and horizontal resolution. Converts a. Furthermore, the audio stream is MP3-encoded so you need to enable LAME support by passing –enable-libmp3lame to configure. The mapping is particularly useful for DVD transcoding to get the desired audio language.

This will extract one video frame per second from the video and will output them in files named foo Images will be rescaled to fit the new WxH values.

If you want to extract just a limited number of frames, you can use the above command in combination with the -frames:v or -t option, or in combination with -ss to start extracting from a certain point in time.

It is the same syntax supported by the C printf function, but only formats accepting a normal integer are suitable. The resulting output file test FFmpeg adopts the following quoting and escaping mechanism, unless explicitly specified. The following rules are applied:. Note that you may need to add a second level of escaping when using the command line or a script, which depends on the syntax of the adopted shell language. Time is local time unless Z is appended, in which case it is interpreted as UTC.

If the year-month-day part is not specified it takes the current year-month-day. HH expresses the number of hours, MM the number of minutes for a maximum of 2 digits, and SS the number of seconds for a maximum of 2 digits. The m at the end expresses decimal value for SS.

S expresses the number of seconds, with the optional decimal part m. Specify the size of the sourced video, it may be a string of the form width x height , or the name of a size abbreviation.

Specify the frame rate of a video, expressed as the number of frames generated per second. A ratio can be expressed as an expression, or in the form numerator : denominator. It can be the name of a color as defined below case insensitive match or a [0x ]RRGGBB[AA] sequence, possibly followed by and a string representing the alpha component. The alpha component may be a string composed by “0x” followed by an hexadecimal number or a decimal number between 0.

A channel layout specifies the spatial disposition of the channels in a multi-channel audio stream. To specify a channel layout, FFmpeg makes use of a special syntax. Each term can be:. Before libavutil version 53 the trailing character “c” to specify a number of channels was optional, but now it is required, while a channel layout mask can also be specified as a decimal number if and only if not followed by “c” or “C”.

Two expressions expr1 and expr2 can be combined to form another expression ” expr1 ; expr2 “. Return 1 if x is greater than or equal to min and lesser than or equal to max , 0 otherwise. The results of the evaluation of x and y are converted to integers before executing the bitwise operation. Note that both the conversion to integer and the conversion back to floating point can lose precision. Round the value of expression expr upwards to the nearest integer.

For example, “ceil 1. Round the value of expression expr downwards to the nearest integer. For example, “floor Return the greatest common divisor of x and y. If both x and y are 0 or either or both are less than zero then behavior is undefined. Evaluate x , and if the result is non-zero return the result of the evaluation of y , return 0 otherwise. Evaluate x , and if the result is non-zero return the evaluation result of y , otherwise the evaluation result of z.

Evaluate x , and if the result is zero return the result of the evaluation of y , return 0 otherwise. Evaluate x , and if the result is zero return the evaluation result of y , otherwise the evaluation result of z. Load the value of the internal variable with number var , which was previously stored with st var , expr.

The function returns the loaded value. Print the value of expression t with loglevel l. If l is not specified then a default log level is used. Returns the value of the expression printed. Return a pseudo random value between 0. Find an input value for which the function represented by expr with argument ld 0 is 0 in the interval When the expression evaluates to 0 then the corresponding input value will be returned.

Round the value of expression expr to the nearest integer. For example, “round 1. Compute the square root of expr.

Store the value of the expression expr in an internal variable. The function returns the value stored in the internal variable. Note, Variables are currently not shared between expressions. Evaluate a Taylor series at x , given an expression representing the ld id -th derivative of a function at 0. If id is not specified then 0 is assumed. Note, when you have the derivatives at y instead of 0, taylor expr, x-y can be used. Round the value of expression expr towards zero to the nearest integer.

For example, “trunc Evaluate expression expr while the expression cond is non-zero, and returns the value of the last expr evaluation, or NAN if cond was always false. Assuming that an expression is considered “true” if it has a non-zero value, note that:. In your C code, you can extend the list of unary and binary functions, and define recognized constants, so that they are available for your expressions.

The evaluator also recognizes the International System unit prefixes. The list of available International System prefixes follows, with indication of the corresponding powers of 10 and of 2. In addition each codec may support so-called private options, which are specific for a given codec. Sometimes, a global option may only affect a specific kind of codec, and may be nonsensical or ignored by another, so you need to be aware of the meaning of the specified options.

Also some options are meant only for decoding or encoding. In 1-pass mode, bitrate tolerance specifies how far ratecontrol is willing to deviate from the target average bitrate value. Lowering tolerance too much has an adverse effect on quality.

Only write platform-, build- and time-independent data. This ensures that file and data checksums are reproducible and match between platforms. Its primary use is for regression testing. It is the fundamental unit of time in seconds in terms of which frame timestamps are represented. Set cutoff bandwidth. Supported only by selected encoders, see their respective documentation sections. It is set by some decoders to indicate constant frame size. Set video quantizer scale compression VBR. It is used as a constant in the ratecontrol equation.

Must be an integer between -1 and If a value of -1 is used, it will choose an automatic value depending on the encoder. Note: experimental decoders can pose a security risk, do not use this for decoding untrusted input. This is useful if you want to analyze the content of a video and thus want everything to be decoded no matter what.

This option will not result in a video that is pleasing to watch in case of errors. Most useful in setting up a CBR encode. It is of little use elsewise. At present, those are H. Supported at present by AV1 decoders. Set the number of threads to be used, in case the selected codec implementation supports multi-threading. Set encoder codec profile.

Encoder specific profiles are documented in the relevant encoder documentation. Possible values:. Set to 1 to disable processing alpha transparency. Default is 0.

Separator used to separate the fields printed on the command line about the Stream parameters. For example, to separate the fields with newlines and indentation:. Maximum number of pixels per image. This value can be used to avoid out of memory failures due to large images.

Enable cropping if cropping parameters are multiples of the required alignment for the left and top parameters. If the alignment is not met the cropping will be partially applied to maintain alignment.

Default is 1 enabled. When you configure your FFmpeg build, all the supported native decoders are enabled by default. Decoders requiring an external library must be enabled manually via the corresponding –enable-lib option.

You can list all available decoders using the configure option –list-decoders. Requires the presence of the libdav1d headers and library during configuration. You need to explicitly configure the build with –enable-libdav1d. Set amount of frame threads to use during decoding. The default value is 0 autodetect. Use the global option threads instead. Set amount of tile threads to use during decoding. Apply film grain to the decoded video if present in the bitstream.

Defaults to the internal default of the library. This option is deprecated and will be removed in the future. Select an operating point of a scalable AV1 bitstream 0 – Requires the presence of the libuavs3d headers and library during configuration. You need to explicitly configure the build with –enable-libuavs3d. Set the line size of the v data in bytes. You can use the special -1 value for a strideless v as seen in BOXX files. Dynamic Range Scale Factor. The factor to apply to dynamic range values from the AC-3 stream.

This factor is applied exponentially. The default value is 1. There are 3 notable scale factor ranges:. DRC enabled. Applies a fraction of the stream DRC value.

Audio reproduction is between full range and full compression. Loud sounds are fully compressed. Soft sounds are enhanced. The lavc FLAC encoder used to produce buggy streams with high lpc values like the default value. This decoder generates wave patterns according to predefined sequences. Its use is purely internal and the format of the data it accepts is not publicly documented.

Requires the presence of the libcelt headers and library during configuration. You need to explicitly configure the build with –enable-libcelt. Requires the presence of the libgsm headers and library during configuration. You need to explicitly configure the build with –enable-libgsm. Requires the presence of the libilbc headers and library during configuration. You need to explicitly configure the build with –enable-libilbc. Using it requires the presence of the libopencore-amrnb headers and library during configuration.

You need to explicitly configure the build with –enable-libopencore-amrnb. Using it requires the presence of the libopencore-amrwb headers and library during configuration. You need to explicitly configure the build with –enable-libopencore-amrwb. Requires the presence of the libopus headers and library during configuration. You need to explicitly configure the build with –enable-libopus. Sets the base path for the libaribb24 library. This is utilized for reading of configuration files for custom unicode conversions , and for dumping of non-text symbols as images under that location.

This codec decodes the bitmap subtitles used in DVDs; the same subtitles can also be found in VobSub file pairs and in some Matroska files. Specify the global palette used by the bitmaps. When stored in VobSub, the palette is normally specified in the index file; in Matroska, the palette is stored in the codec extra-data in the same format as in VobSub. The format for this option is a string containing 16 bits hexadecimal numbers without 0x prefix separated by commas, for example 0d00ee, eed, , eaeaea, 0ce60b, ec14ed, ebff0b, 0da, 7b7b7b, d1d1d1, 7b2a0e, 0dc, 0fb, cf0dec, cfa80c, 7cb.

Only decode subtitle entries marked as forced. Some titles have forced and non-forced subtitles in the same track. Setting this flag to 1 will only keep the forced subtitles. Default value is 0. Requires the presence of the libzvbi headers and library during configuration. You need to explicitly configure the build with –enable-libzvbi. List of teletext page numbers to decode. Pages that do not match the specified list are dropped.

Set default character set used for decoding, a value between 0 and 87 see ETS , Section 15, Table Default value is -1, which does not override the libzvbi default. This option is needed for some legacy level 1. The default format, you should use this for teletext pages, because certain graphics and colors cannot be expressed in simple text or even ASS. Formatted ASS output, subtitle pages and teletext pages are returned in different styles, subtitle pages are stripped down to text, but an effort is made to keep the text alignment and the formatting.

Chops leading and trailing spaces and removes empty lines from the generated text. This option is useful for teletext based subtitles where empty spaces may be present at the start or at the end of the lines or empty lines may be present between the subtitle lines because of double-sized teletext characters.

Default value is 1. Sets the display duration of the decoded teletext pages or subtitles in milliseconds. Default value is -1 which means infinity or until the next subtitle event comes. Force transparent background of the generated teletext bitmaps.

Default value is 0 which means an opaque background. Sets the opacity of the teletext background. When you configure your FFmpeg build, all the supported native encoders are enabled by default. Encoders requiring an external library must be enabled manually via the corresponding –enable-lib option.

You can list all available encoders using the configure option –list-encoders. Setting this automatically activates constant bit rate CBR mode. If this option is unspecified it is set to kbps.

Set quality for variable bit rate VBR mode. This option is valid only using the ffmpeg command-line tool. Set cutoff frequency. If unspecified will allow the encoder to dynamically adjust the cutoff to improve clarity on low bitrates. This method first sets quantizers depending on band thresholds and then tries to find an optimal combination by adding or subtracting a specific value from all quantizers and adjusting some individual quantizer a little.

This is an experimental coder which currently produces a lower quality, is more unstable and is slower than the default twoloop coder but has potential. Not currently recommended.

Worse with low bitrates less than 64kbps , but is better and much faster at higher bitrates. Can be forced for all bands using the value “enable”, which is mainly useful for debugging or disabled using “disable”.

Sets intensity stereo coding tool usage. Can be disabled for debugging by setting the value to “disable”. Uses perceptual noise substitution to replace low entropy high frequency bands with imperceptible white noise during the decoding process. Enables the use of a multitap FIR filter which spans through the high frequency bands to hide quantization noise during the encoding process and is reverted by the decoder.

As well as decreasing unpleasant artifacts in the high range this also reduces the entropy in the high bands and allows for more bits to be used by the mid-low bands. Enables the use of the long term prediction extension which increases coding efficiency in very low bandwidth situations such as encoding of voice or solo piano music by extending constant harmonic peaks in bands throughout frames.

Use in conjunction with -ar to decrease the samplerate. Enables the use of a more traditional style of prediction where the spectral coefficients transmitted are replaced by the difference of the current coefficients minus the previous “predicted” coefficients. In theory and sometimes in practice this can improve quality for low to mid bitrate audio.

The default, AAC “Low-complexity” profile. Is the most compatible and produces decent quality. Introduced in MPEG4. Introduced in MPEG2. This does not mean that one is always faster, just that one or the other may be better suited to a particular system.

The AC-3 metadata options are used to set parameters that describe the audio, but in most cases do not affect the audio encoding itself. Some of the options do directly affect or influence the decoding and playback of the resulting bitstream, while others are just for informational purposes.

A few of the options will add bits to the output stream that could otherwise be used for audio data, and will thus affect the quality of the output. Those will be indicated accordingly with a note in the option list below.

Allow Per-Frame Metadata. Specifies if the encoder should check for changing metadata for each frame. Center Mix Level. The amount of gain the decoder should apply to the center channel when downmixing to stereo. This field will only be written to the bitstream if a center channel is present. The value is specified as a scale factor.

There are 3 valid values:. Surround Mix Level. The amount of gain the decoder should apply to the surround channel s when downmixing to stereo. This field will only be written to the bitstream if one or more surround channels are present. Audio Production Information is optional information describing the mixing environment. Either none or both of the fields are written to the bitstream. Mixing Level. Specifies peak sound pressure level SPL in the production environment when the mix was mastered.

Valid values are 80 to , or -1 for unknown or not indicated. The default value is -1, but that value cannot be used if the Audio Production Information is written to the bitstream. Room Type. Describes the equalization used during the final mixing session at the studio or on the dubbing stage. A large room is a dubbing stage with the industry standard X-curve equalization; a small room has flat equalization. Dialogue Normalization. This parameter determines a level shift during audio reproduction that sets the average volume of the dialogue to a preset level.

The goal is to match volume level between program sources. A value of dB will result in no volume level change, relative to the source volume, during audio reproduction.

Valid values are whole numbers in the range to -1, with being the default. Dolby Surround Mode. Specifies whether the stereo signal uses Dolby Surround Pro Logic.

This field will only be written to the bitstream if the audio stream is stereo. Original Bit Stream Indicator. Specifies whether this audio is from the original source and not a copy. It is grouped into 2 parts. If any one parameter in a group is specified, all values in that group will be written to the bitstream. Default values are used for those that are written but have not been specified. Preferred Stereo Downmix Mode. Dolby Surround EX Mode.

Indicates whether the stream uses Dolby Surround EX 7. Dolby Headphone Mode. Indicates whether the stream uses Dolby Headphone encoding multi-channel matrixed to 2. Stereo Rematrixing. This option is enabled by default, and it is highly recommended that it be left as enabled except for testing purposes. Set lowpass cutoff frequency. If unspecified, the encoder selects a default determined by various other encoding parameters. These options are only valid for the floating-point encoder and do not exist for the fixed-point encoder due to the corresponding features not being implemented in fixed-point.

The per-channel high frequency information is sent with less accuracy in both the frequency and time domains. This allows more bits to be used for lower frequencies while preserving enough information to reconstruct the high frequencies.

This option is enabled by default for the floating-point encoder and should generally be left as enabled except for testing purposes or to increase encoding speed. Coupling Start Band. Sets the channel coupling start band, from 1 to If a value higher than the bandwidth is used, it will be reduced to 1 less than the coupling end band. If auto is used, the start band will be determined by the encoder based on the bit rate, sample rate, and channel layout.

This option has no effect if channel coupling is disabled. Sets the compression level, which chooses defaults for many other options if they are not set explicitly. Valid values are from 0 to 12, 5 is the default. Chooses if rice parameters are calculated exactly or approximately. Multi Dimensional Quantization. If set to 1 then a 2nd stage LPC algorithm is applied after the first stage to finetune the coefficients.

This is quite slow and slightly improves compression. This is a native FFmpeg encoder for the Opus format. Currently its in development and only implements the CELT part of the codec. Its quality is usually worse and at best is equal to the libopus encoder. If unspecified it uses the number of channels and the layout to make a good guess. Sets the maximum delay in milliseconds. Lower delays than 20ms will very quickly decrease quality. Requires the presence of the libfdk-aac headers and library during configuration.

You need to explicitly configure the build with –enable-libfdk-aac. The library is also incompatible with GPL, so if you allow the use of GPL, you should configure with –enable-gpl –enable-nonfree –enable-libfdk-aac. If the bitrate is not explicitly specified, it is automatically set to a suitable value depending on the selected profile. Note that VBR is implicitly enabled when the vbr value is positive. If not specified or explicitly set to 0 it will use a value automatically computed by the library.

Enable afterburner feature if set to 1, disabled if set to 0. This improves the quality but also the required processing power. Set VBR mode, from 1 to 5.

Requires the presence of the libmp3lame headers and library during configuration. You need to explicitly configure the build with –enable-libmp3lame. See libshine for a fixed-point MP3 encoder, although with a lower quality. The following options are supported by the libmp3lame wrapper.

The lame -equivalent of the options are listed in parentheses. Set constant quality setting for VBR. Set algorithm quality. Valid arguments are integers in the range, with 0 meaning highest quality but slowest, and 9 meaning fastest while producing the worst quality. Enable use of bit reservoir when set to 1. LAME has this enabled by default, but can be overridden by use –nores option. Enable the encoder to use ABR when set to 1. The lame –abr sets the target bitrate, while this options only tells FFmpeg to use ABR still relies on b to set bitrate.

Requires the presence of the libopencore-amrnb headers and library during configuration. You need to explicitly configure the build with –enable-libopencore-amrnb –enable-version3.

This is a mono-only encoder. Set bitrate in bits per second. Only the following bitrates are supported, otherwise libavcodec will round to the nearest valid bitrate. Allow discontinuous transmission generate comfort noise when set to 1. The default value is 0 disabled. Most libopus options are modelled after the opusenc utility from opus-tools.

The following is an option mapping chart describing options supported by the libopus wrapper, and their opusenc -equivalent in parentheses. Set VBR mode. The FFmpeg vbr option has the following valid arguments, with the opusenc equivalent options in parentheses:. Set encoding algorithm complexity. Valid options are integers in the range. Set maximum frame size, or duration of a frame in milliseconds. The argument must be exactly the following: 2.

Smaller frame sizes achieve lower latency but less quality at a given bitrate. Sizes greater than 20ms are only interesting at fairly low bitrates. The default is 20ms. Enable inband forward error correction. Default is disabled. Set cutoff bandwidth in Hz. The argument must be exactly one of the following: , , , , or , corresponding to narrowband, mediumband, wideband, super wideband, and fullband respectively. The default is 0 cutoff disabled. Set channel mapping family to be used by the encoder.

The default value of -1 uses mapping family 0 for mono and stereo inputs, and mapping family 1 otherwise. The default also disables the surround masking and LFE bandwidth optimzations in libopus, and requires that the input contains 8 channels or fewer. Other values include 0 for mono and stereo, 1 for surround sound with masking and LFE bandwidth optimizations, and for independent streams with an unspecified channel layout.

If set to 0, disables the use of phase inversion for intensity stereo, improving the quality of mono downmixes, but slightly reducing normal stereo quality.

The default is 1 phase inversion enabled. Shine is a fixed-point MP3 encoder. It has a far better performance on platforms without an FPU, e. However, as it is more targeted on performance than quality, it is not on par with LAME and other production-grade encoders quality-wise. Requires the presence of the libshine headers and library during configuration.

You need to explicitly configure the build with –enable-libshine. The following options are supported by the libshine wrapper. The shineenc -equivalent of the options are listed in parentheses. Requires the presence of the libtwolame headers and library during configuration. You need to explicitly configure the build with –enable-libtwolame.

The following options are supported by the libtwolame wrapper. The twolame -equivalent options follow the FFmpeg ones and are in parentheses. Default value is k. Set quality for experimental VBR support. Maximum value range is from to 50, useful range is from to The higher the value, the better the quality.

Set psychoacoustic model to use in encoding. The argument must be an integer between -1 and 4, inclusive. The default value is 3. Requires the presence of the libvo-amrwbenc headers and library during configuration. You need to explicitly configure the build with –enable-libvo-amrwbenc –enable-version3.

Requires the presence of the libvorbisenc headers and library during configuration. You need to explicitly configure the build with –enable-libvorbis. The following options are supported by the libvorbis wrapper. The oggenc -equivalent of the options are listed in parentheses. The value should be a float number in the range of Set cutoff bandwidth in Hz, a value of 0 disables cutoff.

This only has effect on ABR mode. Set noise floor bias for impulse blocks. The value is a float number from A negative bias instructs the encoder to pay special attention to the crispness of transients in the encoded audio. The tradeoff for better transient response is a higher bitrate. The following shared options are effective for this encoder. Only special notes about this particular encoder will be documented here.

For the general meaning of the options, see the Codec Options chapter. For this encoder, the range for this option is between and Default is automatically decided based on sample rate and number of channel. Set whether to enable optimization for mono.

This option is only effective for non-mono streams. Available values:. Keyframe interval. A keyframe is inserted at least every -g frames, sometimes sooner. Quality factor. Pakistan’s law enforcement is divided into multiple tiers, including forces under provincial and federal government control.

The law strictly prohibits any physical abuse of suspected or convicted criminals; however, due to deficiencies during the training process, there have been reported instances of suspected police brutality. Reported cases are often investigated by police authorities as well as civil courts leading to mixed outcomes. A recent case includes the purported extra judicial killing of a man named Naqeebullah by an ex-officer named “Rao Anwar”.

Taking notice of the matter, the Supreme Court issued arrest and detention warrants in the case to arrest the accused. As a result of the police trying to stop the rally, people were injured. During the Hong Kong protests , there were numerous instances of police brutality. Seven police officers were caught on video kicking and beating a prominent political activist who was already handcuffed. Pictures on local TV and social media show demonstrators being dragged behind police lines, circled by police officers so that onlookers’ views were blocked, and in some cases, re-emerging with visible injuries.

An officer-involved, retired police officer Frankly Chu King-wai was sentenced to three months in prison for causing serious bodily harm. During the —20 Hong Kong protests which gained extensive international coverage, [43] [44] [45] [46] complaints of police brutality increased substantially and broke previous records of complaints. Cases that have caused outrage include the police’s mauling and intentional head-shooting of protesters by rubber bullets [47] [48] [49] and rapid tear-gassing of a surrounded crowd.

Many Hong Kong citizens accuse the police of attempting to murder protesters to deter the people from exercising their freedom of expression. Amnesty International released a report on 21 June denouncing the role of the Hong Kong police in the 12 June protest that ended up in bloodshed.

Several street conflicts continued in Hong Kong throughout July Instances of police striking journalists with batons to obstruct their live reporting have been filmed. On the night of 31 August , more than riot police officers entered the Prince Edward MTR station and attacked suspects in a train compartment on the Tsuen Wan line with batons and pepper spray. Many suspects sustained head injuries.

Politically motivated riots and protests have occurred historically in China, notably with the Tiananmen Square protests of Chinese protesters have been able to systematize powerful group mobilizations with the use of social media and informal mass communication like Twitter and its Chinese counterparts Weibo.

The Xintang region, Canton Province Guangzhou , is an influential textile hub, attracting thousands of workers from all over the country, and what lit the fuse was a complaint of mistreatment against a pregnant migrant worker.

Protests on 20 February [ year needed ] used a website to urge participants not to shout more anti-government slogans, but to go outside for a quiet walk in the places where they had been deciding to continue the protest. After a brutal police response, the authorities installed corrugated metal fences outside the restaurant and the home of dissident and Nobel Peace Prize winner Liu Xiaobo.

This presence interrupted the orderly operation of the shops. In , Thai police, military personnel and others, were seen shooting at protesters at Thammasat University. Many were killed and many survivors were abused. Turkey has a history of police brutality, including the use of torture particularly between and Police brutality featured excessive use of tear gas including targeting protesters with tear gas canisters , [66] pepper spray, and water cannons.

Physical violence against protesters has been observed, for example, in the suppression of Kurdish protests and May Day demonstrations. The protests in Turkey were in response to the brutal police suppression of an environmentalist sit-in protesting the removal of Taksim Gezi Park. The European Court of Human Rights has noted the failure of the Turkish investigating authorities to carry out effective investigations into allegations of ill-treatment by law enforcement personnel during demonstrations.

In , the General Directorate of Security issued a circular banning all audio-visual recordings of law enforcement officers at protests.

In Vienna, there is an association made between Vienna’s drug problem and the city’s African migrants, which have led to African migrants being racially profiled. There have been several highly publicized incidents in Austria where police have either tortured, publicly humiliated, or violently beaten people—in some cases, to the point of death. While the most notorious of these incidents occurred in the late s, incidents as recent as are being investigated by the Vienna Police Department for Special Investigations.

There has been a notable lack of commitment to addressing the violation of civilians’ rights in Austria, with Amnesty International reporting that in — very few people who violated human rights were brought to justice. This was worsened by the fact that many people who made a complaint against police were brought up on counter-charges such as resisting arrest, defamation, and assault.

From to , accusations of police misconduct were made against officers in Vienna with none being charged, though 1, people were charged with “civil disorder” in a similar time period. The culture of excusing police officers for their misconduct has continued into the present day, and any complaints of mistreatment are often met with inadequate investigations and judicial proceedings.

Austria has legislation that criminalizes hate speech against anyone’s race, religion, nationality, or ethnicity. Austria has several NGOs that are trying to implement broad programs that encourage positive cross-cultural relations and more targeted programs such as racial sensitivity training for police. The Austrian police are formulating their policies to prevent police brutality and to make prosecuting police misconduct fairer.

However, it appears that incidents of police brutality are still occurring. One suggestion was to disband the Bereitschaftspolizei , Vienna’s riot police, as they have frequently been involved with human rights violations and situations of police brutality. Such a plan was required by the Durban Declaration and Programme of Action.

The police in Belarus clamp down on dissidents, often violently. In May , authorities stopped Ryanair Flight in Belarusian airspace. A Belarusian journalist and activist, Roman Protasevich was taken off the plane and detained by authorities.

Belgian law enforcement changed to two police forces operating on a federal and local level in after a three-tier police system. While the two services remain independent, they integrate common training programs and recruitment. The change was prompted by a national parliamentary report into a series of pedophile murders which proved police negligence and severely diminished public confidence.

Currently, approximately 33, local police and civilians work across regional police forces. An extreme instance in January led to the death of Jonathan Jacob in Mortsel. He was apprehended by local Mortsel police for behaving strangely under the influence of amphetamines. The footage depicted eight officers from Antwerp police’s Special Intervention Unit restraining and beating Jacob after he had been injected with a sedative sparked public outrage.

Jacob died from internal bleeding following the incident, but police claimed they did not make any mistakes and “acted carefully, respecting the necessary precautions”.

In , the Grand Chamber of the European Court of Human Rights ECtHR convicted Belgium of human rights violations in an appeal on the treatment of two brothers in custody who had been slapped by an officer. The Grand Chamber voiced its concern that “a slap inflicted by a law-enforcement officer on an individual who is entirely under his control constitutes a serious attack on the individual’s dignity”.

Several other instances of police violence can be noted in Belgium. In , Mawda, a four-year-old child was killed in an encounter with a truck used to carry migrants across the border. A police officer shot on the moving car, despite knowing a child was in it. In , Lamine Bangoura was killed in his own apartment by eight policemen because he had not paid rent. In the attempt to evict him out of his flat, the policemen used unwarranted brutality which resulted in Lamine’s death.

In , Mehdi, year-old Moroccan boy was run over by a police car on patrol. He was hit by a police car to stop him in his chase, which killed him on impact. Sources say it was on purpose, even though he was on a scooter. Both these cases had been filed as dismissed. In , Ibrahima was arrested. He was filming a police control. The authorities however, said he was arrested for not respecting the curfew, which starts at 10pm, even though his arrest happened at 6pm.

He died in police custody, in unknown circumstances. His death prompted a lot of reaction from the public, who organized a protest a few days after his killing. The Constitution of Croatia prohibits torture, mistreatment, and cruel and degrading punishment under Article 17, and accords arrested and convicted persons humane treatment under Article 25 of the OHCHR.

From to , the Croatian police, in addition to their regular police tasks, were a militarised force charged with the role of defending the country while seceding from Yugoslavia. The European Court of Human Rights has found that Croatian police authorities have failed to fulfill their obligations, on numerous occasions, under Article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms by failing to carry out effective investigations to protect its citizens and tourists from violent attacks.

The Croatian police have a history of discriminatory abuse and failing to recognise violence against the Romani minority living in Croatia. The European Commission against Racism and Intolerance noted that Croatian police abuse against minority groups including Romani were continually reported; [] police authorities are reluctant to take violence against Romani people seriously.

The Croatian police violence has been used to intimidate refugees travelling from Serbia into Croatia. The Police of Denmark has a force of approximately 11, officers and they serve in the 12 police districts and the two Danish overseas territories.

A majority of complaints stem from general misconduct, such as traffic violations and unprofessional behaviour e. However, the Annual Report identifies some instances where the Police of Denmark used excessive force.

Although examples of police brutality are not common, highly publicised incidents have been reported. To ensure that police are well-trained and to mitigate the risk of police brutality, police recruits undergo approximately three years of training; at the National Police College, recruits learn about police theory, the Road Traffic Act, criminal law, physical training, other legislation, first aid, radio communication, securing evidence, identifying drugs, preventing crime, management, human rights, and cultural sociology to name a few.

By comparison, US police academies provide an average of 19 weeks of classroom instruction. To keep police officers accountable and to ensure that they perform their duties in compliance with Danish, European and international laws, the Independent Police Complaints Authority has the power to handle criminal investigations against police officers and determine complaints of police misconduct.

For example, police. Any assessment of the justification of such force must also take into account whether the use of force involves any risk of bodily harm to third parties. Therefore, police in Denmark are held to high standards and will face consequences if they breach their obligations to encourage compliance.

Victims of police misconduct are encouraged to lodge a report with the Authority. The Estonian Police force was temporarily dissolved in when Estonia lost its independence to the Soviet Union after it was occupied, before the Police Act passed in dissolved the Soviet militsiya and re-established it.

The main objectives for this organisation are to maintain security and public order, crime prevention, detection and investigation, securing the European Union EU border, citizenship and identity documentation administration. Incidents of police abuse are very rare. Although uncommon, powers are sometimes abused which leads to police brutality, such as the Bronze Soldier riots.

The Bronze Night occurred from 26 to 29 April , when riots broke out over the Bronze Soldier of Tallinn being relocated.

The government wanted to relocate the statue and rebury the associated remains near the Tallinn Military Cemetery; the response was heavily negative among the country’s Russophone population, but for Estonians historically the Bronze Soldier served as a symbol of Soviet occupation and repression.

One Russian rioter was killed and other protesters were arrested. Due to the overcrowded detention centres, many of the detainees were taken to cargo terminals in Tallinn’s seaport. Then-chairman of the Constitution Party Andrei Zarenkov stated “people were forced to squat for hours or lie on the concrete floor with their hands tied behind their backs.

The police used plastic handcuffs which caused great pain. The police selectively beat the detainees including women and teenagers. We have pictures of a toilet which is stained with the blood of the injured”. The police department denied all claims made against them. On 22 May , the Office of Prosecutor General of Estonia [] received more than fifty complaints on the police brutality that occurred during Bronze Night and opened seven criminal cases against them. In November , the United Nations Committee Against Torture expressed concerns over the use of excessive force and brutality by law enforcement personnel in regards to Bronze Night.

It was later discovered that the accused were only allowed outside contact and lawyer assistance when brought before a judge. Several detainees were denied access to a doctor while in police custody despite displaying visible injuries. The policing structure of the nineteenth century France has been linked to the outcomes of France’s reorganisation during the French Revolution. France’s police ombudsman is currently dealing with 48 judicial inquiries into police brutality against its citizens, in which 1, individuals have been arrested within three months.

Grey areas around police accountability have come to light, including questions over how his body was covered in bruises and whether or not carotid restraint which involves constricting the carotid arteries was used against him. Recent protests over disputed labor laws have revealed the extreme nature of police brutality in France, as many videos have surfaced in the media depicting police using disproportionate force on protesters.

French officials have forced these aggressive videos to be destroyed. A group known as the Stolen Lives Collective formed in response to the increased number of cases of police brutality in French communities. The group strongly demands the government to act against police brutality and to reduce racism present across the police force in France. On 14 December , Amnesty International reported police brutality during the yellow vests movement. Participation in the weekly protests diminished due to violence, particularly due to the loss of eyes and hands, and the development of neurological disorders caused by police blast balls.

Historically, police brutality was commonplace during the s and s following the Finnish Civil War. In , there were 7, police officers in Finland. The number of these crimes were shown to increase annually. These types of cases were the most likely to be dismissed before proceeding to the prosecutor for consideration. In , a year-old police constable lured a year-old girl to his house by showing her his badge, where he got her drunk and raped her twice.

The constable was fired and sentenced to a two-year suspended sentence. Facial bones were also broken and he was left permanently damaged. One guard participating in the assault was sentenced to an day suspended prison sentence. The police twisted the man’s hands and pushed him backward and broke a femur in the process.

According to the police, he had resisted, contrary to eyewitness accounts. A third officer testified that the event was captured on surveillance video, which was stored but accidentally destroyed. The officer also stated that they had seen the footage and claimed that the video did not show any resistance on the part of the victim, but also that the assault happened out of the camera’s view.

Germany is sensitive towards its history in implementing policing practices, though this has not stopped international bodies from identifying a clear pattern of police ill-treatment of foreigners and members of ethnic minorities. As law enforcement is vested solely with the states of Germany, each state’s police force or “Land” police follows a different system of law. Accordingly, there is an absence of a federal comprehensive register, compiling and publishing regular, uniform, and comprehensive figures on complaints about police ill-treatment.

The study was conducted by the Ruhr-University of Bochum and was the biggest study at the time to be conducted on police brutality in Germany. The study found that the low number of complaints was likely due to a low expectation of success. Despite this objective lack of accountability for policing practice, public levels of trust in police remain among the highest in the EU only behind Scandinavian countries and Switzerland. Lower numbers exist in Scandinavian countries and the UK, [] suggesting that Germany is attempting to build the impression of having a more laissez-faire approach to policing, despite instances of police brutality.

One of the first documented incidents dates back to , where year-old activist Sideris Isidoropoulos was killed by police while he put up campaign posters on a public building. In , year-old protester Stamatina Kanelopoulou and year-old Iakovos Koumis died at the hands of the Greek police. They were beaten to death by police officers during a demonstration commemorating the Athens Polytechnic uprising.

The protests still occur to this day for protesters to commemorate the uprising. The protests are still commonly affected by police brutality around the time of the event. The level and severity of police brutality in Greece over the last few years have been profound. Due to the recent financial crisis, many austerity measures have been enforced, resulting in many individuals and families struggling to survive.

Greek citizens opposed these austerity measures from the beginning and showed their disapproval with strikes and demonstrations. In response, police brutality has significantly increased, with consistent reports on the use of tear gas, severe injuries inflicted by the police force, and unjustified detention of protesters. In Greek police allegedly tortured four young men believed to be bank robbery suspects following their arrest.

It was claimed that the men were hooked and severely beaten in detention. The media published photos of the men, all with severe bruising, though the police’s press release showed digitally manipulated photos of the four without injuries. The Greek minister of citizen protection— Nikos Dendias —supported the police and claimed that they needed to use Photoshop to ensure the suspects were recognisable. Victims claimed they were tortured while being held at the Attica General Police Directorate and stated that police officers slapped them, spat on them, burnt their arms with cigarette lighters, and kept them awake with flashlights and lasers.

Dendias countered by accusing the British newspaper that published the details of these crimes of libel. It was proven by forensic examination that the torture had taken place. The two Greek journalists who commented on The Guardian report the next day were fired. Police brutality in Greece today predominantly manifests itself in the form of unjustified and extreme physical violence towards protesters and journalists. Amnesty International highlights that the continued targeting of journalists is concerning as it infringes on the right to freedom of expression.

According to a recent Amnesty International report, there have been multiple instances in which police have used excessive brutal force, misused less-lethal weapons against protesters, attacked journalists, and subjected bystanders to ill-treatment, particularly over the course of the anniversary of the Athens Polytechnic uprising, which took place on 17 November Police allegedly sprayed protesters with chemical irritants from close range — in one instance a year-old girl with asthma had been treated in the hospital after this attack and when she informed police of her condition they laughed.

Video footage confirmed that on 13 November , riot police began to strike students who attempted to run away from the grounds of Athens Polytechnic.

Media reports suggest that around 40 protesters had to seek subsequent medical attention to injuries sustained from brutal police beatings.

A German exchange student said he was beaten randomly by riot police in the Exarheia district, stating his only reason for being there was that he was eating with other students.

The student gave a horrifying description of the violence he endured and cowered in a corner when he saw police because a few weeks before he had witnessed police beating a man they had arrested. He claimed that upon spotting him, about six police officers began assaulting him with their batons, and when they left they were replaced by another group of police. It has been indicated that riot police left beaten and gravely injured individuals without any medical assistance.

Amnesty International urges Greece to effectively and promptly investigate these crimes against civilians, which violate human rights, and hold perpetrators accountable. There have been instances where protesters were used as human shields — a photo of a female protester in handcuffs ahead of policeman as people threw rocks at the police has gained considerable media attention. None of the cases of police brutality above resulted in any prosecution of police force members.

One case that sparked nationwide riots was the death of year-old Alexis Grigoropoulos, who was shot dead by a police officer in December during demonstrations in Athens, sparkling large riots against police brutality. Unlike other cases, the police officer responsible was convicted of murder.

The police force in Hungary consists of the National Bureau of Investigation and the Operational Police, who respectively deal with investigating severe crimes and riot suppression. Police threw gas grenades and used rubber bullets to shoot protesters. Protesters and non-violent civilians passing by were targeted, tackled, and injured by the police. Police broke the fingers of a handcuffed man and raided restaurants and bars to find radical demonstrators.

Police brutality ranged from offensive language to physically attacking protesters. Reports show that brutality extended to bypassers, tourists, news reporters, and paramedics. Hungarian Spectrum blogger Eva S. The requirements to become a police officer in Hungary are to graduate from high school, pass a matriculation exam, and complete two years in the police academy.

Most of what the Hungarian police academy teaches is academic theory and not much on practice. Police brutality has been a long-standing issue in Northern Ireland due to unsavoury police procedures used during the Troubles to obtain admissions of guilt. At present Northern Ireland still faces policing issues, though not to the extent during the Troubles.

There are concerns about harassment by police against children aged 14—18 in low socio-economic areas of Northern Ireland which have led to a deep level of mistrust between the youth and the police. Instances of harassment include police officials spitting on individuals or enforcing laws in a discriminatory fashion.

Excessive use of force is unlawful, though section 76 7 of the Criminal Justice and Immigration Act allows the following considerations when deciding on what force is reasonable.

A person acting for a legitimate purpose may not be able to weigh up the exact necessary action at the time or may act instinctively but honestly — in these instances, the use of force may be considered reasonable.

This is acknowledged by the Garda, who state: “Unfortunately, even in the most civilised democratic jurisdictions, tragedies resulting from police use of force will continue to devastate families and communities”.

The use of force by Irish Police officers has been of international concern, when the European Committee for the Prevention of Torture reported on this issue in the Republic three times within a decade. Incidents that prompted this concern centred around the death of John Carty, a man suffering from mental illness who was shot and killed by police; the prosecution of seven Garda police members due to assaults on protesters in and in ; and a fifteen-year-old boy who died after spending time in Garda custody.

Given this state of events, the Garda engaged independent Human Rights experts to conduct a review of the force who found numerous deficiencies. The government responded by implementing new procedures based on this report. These include a new complaints procedure available against the Garda Ombudsman Commission , disciplinary procedures and whistle-blowing protections. The use of excessive violence by police officers has been a major concern in Italy since the s. Beatings and violence are commonly used during demonstrations, and several murders have been carried out.

The following incidents caused concern in the country:. Latvia became an independent republic in and attempted to develop an effective and accepted police force, moving away from the untrusted Russian Tsarist administration. Despite positive post-independence aims to reform the police system and to maintain public order and security, the Latvian police were underfunded and under-resourced.

The National Militia was created in response, consisting of a group of volunteers to protect public order. From to , Latvia was occupied by the Soviet Union , and all previous regulations and practices were overruled by the Communist regime, which brought in the Soviet militsiya.

More significantly, the approach of community policing was replaced with a militarised authority based on Marxist ideologies. During this time, an imbalance existed between police actions and citizens’ rights. Despite the lack of statistics, it is clear that police brutality was a major issue, as ustrated by the case where the former nominal head of the militsiya in practice – the secret police of the KGB of the Latvian SSR Alfons Noviks was sentenced to life imprisonment in this time period for genocide against the Latvian people.

In , the independence of the state of Latvia was restored, which saw another change in the police system with the implementation of the Law on Police on 5 June.

This restructured the police into State, Security, and Local Government levels. The Law on Police reiterated ethical requirements, where police officers were prohibited from performing or supporting acts relating to “torture or other cruel, inhuman or demeaning treatment or punishment”.

However, despite these reforms, issues regarding police brutality arose among the Russian population living in Latvia; in , police forces were accused of dispersing a rally of predominately Russian pensioners through the use of excessive force and brutality.

Reports from Latvian prisons illustrate cases where police batons were used to inflict serious harm to inmates, including causing broken ribs, which often were not medically assessed for up to two days.

This identifies fundamental flaws in the Latvian police authorities. While the CPT gives appropriate authorities recommendations for improvements such as a review board for ill-treatment, they found that in , Latvian authorities did not enact any of their recommendations. This was alleged to occur mostly while being apprehended or at the police station including during questioning. Despite the flaws within the Latvian Police system, CPT has found that the number of allegations for poor treatment is decreasing over the years.

The Latvian Police force operates under the Professional Ethics and Conduct Code of the State Police Personnel, which states “a police officer shall use force, special facilities or weapon only in the cases stipulated by due course of law and to attain a legal aim. The use of spontaneous or -intentioned force, special facilities or weapon shall not be justified”, [] recognising that the authorities are conscious of police brutality, and given more time, it is likely that the figures will continue to decrease.

The Grand Ducal Police is the primary law enforcement agency in Luxembourg and has been operating since 1 January , when the Grand Ducal Gendarmerie previous Luxembourg military merged with the police force. Police brutality is not perceived to be a serious threat to society in Luxembourg. The European Union’s Anti-Corruption report placed Luxembourg, along with Denmark and Finland, as having the lowest incidents of reported police brutality within the European Union.

Laws in Luxembourg specifically distinguish between coercion and force in the Act on Regulating the Use of Force. However, this Act does not cover other forms of physical coercion by police officers such as the use of handcuffs as these are seen as basic police measures that do not require specific legislation.

The officer must be legitimately executing his duty and his actions and must be compatible under the principles of proportionality, subsidiarity, reasonability, and measure to use force. The police inspector the term used for a common officer must undergo legal and tactical training lasting an intensive 26 months followed by further training at an allocated police station.

Although police brutality is almost nonexistent in Luxembourg, there are effective procedures in place for the investigation and punishment of any potential misconduct by the Grand Ducal Police. Malta’s Police Force MPF is one of the oldest in Europe, with the Maltese government taking over the force in following the grant of self-governance.

There are approximately 1, members in the Force. Under the Police Act of , Part V deals with the use of force, where”police officers may use such moderate and proportionate force as may be necessary [ Malta is expected to abide by the European Code of Ethics as a member of the European Union , where “the police may use force only when strictly necessary and only to the extent required to obtain a legitimate objective.

Similarly, the Council of Europe of which Malta is a member follows the five principles developed by the European Court of Human Rights , where definition 16 states that police officers “may use reasonable force when lawfully exercising powers”. In , Lawrence Gonzi The Minister for Justice and Home Affairs called upon Martin Scicluna, a former civil servant and currently an expert on security issues at the Prime Minister’s Office, to conduct an independent inquiry into 24 March police brutality incident.

The inquiry required the investigation of “allegations of beatings carried out on detainees at Safi Detention Centre by members of the Detention Service on 24 March and to make any recommendations necessary in the light of [his] findings”.

Scicluna made recommendations that “appropriate [action] should be taken to reprimand the Detention Service officers involved in this operation and the relevant Senior NCOs for the acts of 25 excessive force used by some personnel in their charge”. Although Malta has attempted to tackle the police brutality through the implementation of independent systems such as the Internal Affairs Unit IAU , the US Department of State report on Malta’s human rights found that “authorities detained irregular immigrants under harsh conditions for up to 18 months during the review of their protected status.

After the IAU was implemented, the Human Rights Committee has raised questions on the use of force by state officials with respect to the countering of detention center riots, where police were accused of punching and striking detainees. An inquiry was consequently conducted in and following riots, resulting in criminal proceedings against the law enforcement officials responsible.

They called upon Maltese authorities to conduct a rapid investigation emphasising the need to forbid violence against migrants and refugees, whether by state parties or by individuals. The Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination , concerning the conditions of migrants in detention, recommended that the “State party take appropriate measures to improve detention conditions and refrain from resorting to excessive use of force to counter riots by immigrants in detention centers, and also to avoid such riot”.

The Malta Police Force issued a statement detailing what had happened, in which it claimed that Mr. Calleja acted aggressively, refused to take a breathalyser test, ignored police orders, and used foul language. He was subsequently arrested and taken to a police squad car, but according to the police statement, he kicked the driver, tried to escape and banged his head repeatedly against the car window.

The police added that he even spit blood at police officers and bit a constable’s arm, tearing off part of his skin. When asked to state his client’s plea, Dr.

Abela declared “absolutely not guilty,” before accusing the police of grossly distorting the truth. Calleja’s nose was bandaged, and Dr. Abela presented a medical certificate showing that it had been broken as evidence. The lawyer also presented his client’s blood-stained clothes — prosecuting inspector Jason Sultana originally objected, but relented after Dr.

Abela said that this objection was due to the fact that the clothes helped confirm the injuries Mr. Calleja sustained. The man said his son was in a bar in Paceville when police went up to him because he was smoking.

The man claimed that the police roughly manhandled his son, handcuffed him and threw him into a van where he was beaten up and suffered from lacerations to the head as well as bruised ribs and muscles.

He was subsequently charged with threatening the two officers while carrying out their duties, breaching the peace and refusing to give his particulars. He was cleared of the charges. In the ensuing verbal exchange the officer, Defence lawyer Rachel Tua said, made offensive remarks about the accused’s father.

Robertson was then allegedly thrown to the ground by the officer, who slammed the man’s head on the ground, the lawyer said, also claiming that the accused had his injured arm cruelly twisted while he was being handcuffed.

She denied the prosecution’s assertion that Robertson had assaulted police, adding that his friends had witnessed the incident and would be summoned to testify. Tua told magistrate Vella that the police refused to allow Robertson to speak to her during his arrest, instead of holding him overnight and taking a statement the next morning — with the police officer who allegedly delivered the beating present in the interrogation room.

The police had not even told him why he was being arrested, she said. The Netherlands is signatory to the European Convention on Human Rights [] detailing the limits and responsibilities of police powers, and as such demonstrates a public commitment to the restricted legal use of police powers. These powers include the use of reasonable force to enable the effective discharge of duties, with the stipulation force be used proportionately and only as a last resort [].

The police force of the Netherlands is divided into 25 regional forces and one central force. A Regional Police Board, made up of local mayors and the chief public prosecutor, heads each regional force, with a chief officer placed in charge of police operations. Police accountability procedures include mandatory reporting of any on-duty incident that requires the use of force.

The Rijksrecherche is the national agency responsible for the investigation of serious breaches of police conduct resulting in death or injury. In the Rijksrecherche conducted 67 inquiries related to police officers, 21 of which were related to shootings. While Dutch society has a history of support for liberal values, it has been subject to practicing racial profiling and increased levels of police violence towards racial minorities.

Van der Leun writes that suspicion and mistrust of some racial groups is evident and perpetuated by police attitudes at all levels of command. A notable case in racial profiling and the use of police force occurred in June with the death of Aruban man Mitch Henriquez.

Henriquez died of asphyxiation while in police custody after being suspected of carrying a firearm and being arrested at a music festival in The Hague. The first anniversary of his death in June provided a catalyst for protests against police brutality in The Hague, an area with a significant proportion of residents of non-European background.

Eleven protesters were arrested for failing to comply with instructions from the Mayor to limit protest to certain areas of the city, which led some protesters to claim authorities were attempting to criminalize the right to peaceful protest. The five officers alleged to be involved in Hendriquez’s death have been suspended but have yet to be charged.

The Polish police Policja force aims to “serve and protect the people, and to maintain public order and security”. A key factor influencing the levels of police brutality in Poland has been the move from a communist state to a democracy. It is argued that Poland’s transition has resulted in a more transparent system, reducing levels of police brutality. Although there is a more open police force within Poland, many organizations still have issues against police brutality.

The United States Department of State report on Poland raised several concerns of police brutality; [] The report cited a case of police officers using violence to acquire a confession for armed robbery in , [] though it also noted that these police officers were eventually indicted for police brutality.

In year Polish women started protesting against new restrictions in abortion law. In response Polish police started arresting, use of gas against protesters and even beating them on the streets.

Government states that use of force was necessary, even though there was no reported example of aggression on the side of protesters. In recent years one of the main sources of controversy concerning Polish police brutality has been the use of rubber bullets to disperse uncooperative crowds at sporting events.

In , major riots occurred when a young basketball fan was killed by the police. In , a man was killed and a woman injured in a riot when Polish police accidentally shot live ammunition instead of rubber bullets into the crowd after an association football game. Although rubber bullets were used, one man was hit in the neck and later died at the hospital. The Polish police also have a history of police brutality within the Roma community.

One particular case of police brutality against the Romani people occurred in when the police took four Roma men to a field and beat them. Portugal is ranked the fourth most heavily policed country in the world. This is restrictive on multiple counts; for example, police are not permitted to use their firearms when an offender is running away.

Portuguese police have adopted an aggressive position in combating football hooliganism. Despite their means being considered disproportionate, the police view the heavy-handed nature of their tactics as a necessary and successful approach towards protecting the community and maintaining social order. In , a viral video showed a Benfica fan being heavily beaten in front of his two children outside a football stadium.

The footage, filmed by a local television station, showed Jose Magalhaes leaving the football match early with his children and elderly father before being confronted by police officers. A statement released by the PSP acknowledged the controversial incident and announced that an investigation was launched against the officer responsible for initiating the attack. The statement also defended policing the large crowds in the aftermath of the football match. Riot police had clashed with supporters the following day in Lisbon as fans celebrated Benfica’s title victory.

The harsh approach was described as sufficient, justified, and necessary to prevent the social disorder from escalating. In a similar incident in , another football club, Sporting Lisbon, complained about “barbaric” police assaults on their fans.

There have been suggestions of institutionalised racism within the Portuguese police force, with activists claiming that discrimination is the deep-rooted cause of police brutality in Portugal. Despite a good record in migrant integration, historical parallels can be drawn between Portugal’s colonial past and modern police racism. Racially-influenced police actions are illustrated by the violence in Cova de Moura, a low socio-economic area housing a significant migrant population.

Notably, during an incident in February , a young man named Bruno Lopes was aggressively searched and physically abused. On the same day, two human rights workers and five youth entered the Alfragide police station requesting information on Lopes’ situation. Upon arrival, the group was allegedly attacked by police officers shouting racist slurs. The European Commission against Racism and Intolerance ECRI has raised concerns about police mistreatment of minorities in Portugal in all of its reports on the country.

Portuguese people of Roma descent have also been victims of police harassment and brutality in the country. There are several examples publicized by the media: one case from involved a Roma man and his son. The two walked to the Nelas police station in Porto to get some information, but the police allegedly ended up abusing them. Two officers were convicted in for physically assaulting the father. Some of the people living in the camp, including children and women, were reportedly attacked by GNR officers.

Six Roma that were detained in the operation allege that they were later tortured and humiliated in the GNR station of Amares ; the GNR denied the accusations, while SOS Racismo promised to file a complaint against the force. Russian protests have gained media attention with the reelection of Vladimir Putin in More attention has been given to the frequency of police brutality shown on posted videos online.

Then-president Dmitry Medvedev initiated reforms of the police force in an attempt to minimize the violence by firing the Moscow police chief and centralising police powers. Police divisions in Russia are often based on loyalty systems that favor bureaucratic power among political elites.

Phone tapping and business raids are common practice in the country, and often fail to give due process to citizens. Proper investigations into police officials are still considered insufficient by Western standards. In , Russia’s top investigative agency investigated charges that four police officers had tortured detainees under custody. Human rights activists claim that Russian police use torture techniques to extract false confessions from detainees.

Police regulations require officers to meet quotas for solving crimes, which encourages false arrests to meet their numbers. In the early days, when Russia was part of the Soviet Union, the secret police and authorities used to detain people and send certain people to the gulags.

Police brutality in Slovakia is systematic and widely documented, but is almost exclusively enacted on the Romani minority. The nation-state itself has particularly racist attitudes toward the Romani minority dating back to before the split of Czechoslovakia.

It is widely known that the government practiced forced sterilisation of Romani women and the segregation of the Romani into walled-off settlements; [] these forms of discrimination have filtered down to the police force. Excessive use of force against the Romani minority by police has been publicly criticised by the United Nations. In , a year-old Romani man died as a result of abuse in police custody at the hands of the Mayor of Magnezitovce and his son who works as a police officer.

The victim, Karol Sendrei, was allegedly chained to a radiator and fatally beaten after being forcefully removed from his home. In response to this incident, the Minister for Internal Affairs attempted to establish new measures to prevent police brutality by including mandatory psychological testing for law enforcement and better training around the effective use of coercion. However, police brutality toward the Roma minority remains a serious issue.

Video footage shot by law enforcement officers in shows 6 Romani boys aged between being forced to strip naked, kiss, and slap each other. It is alleged that the boys were then set upon by police dogs , with at least two sustaining serious injuries. Officers attempted to justify their behaviour because the boys were suspected of theft against an elderly citizen; however, cruel , inhuman, or degrading treatment by police, regardless of whether a crime has been suspected or committed, is prohibited under international law.

As the footage was the main piece of evidentiary support for the crime, without it a conviction could not be passed down. Human rights watchdog organisations have raised concerns around police selectivity in making recordings of raids after a raid in the settlement of Vrbica in ; the police claimed to have not thought the settlement would be problematic; this raid involved 15 men being seriously injured.

It is often the experience of the Roma in regards to pressing charges for police brutality, a counter charge is often threatened by law enforcement in an attempt to pressure the alleged victim into dropping the charges. It is generally an effective move as the hostile attitude toward the Roma in Slovakia is so entrenched that lawyers are often reluctant to represent Romani victims. Minority groups in Slovenia, particularly the Roma and any residents from the former Yugoslav Republic face discrimination and sometimes brutality by Slovenian police.

Their rights have not been fully restored yet. The police have been known to occasionally use excessive force against detainees in prisons, as well as foreigners and other minority groups, though no police officer has ever been arrested or charged. The worst case of police brutality was the November protests; political dissatisfaction spurred a series of protests in Maribor, Slovenia. For the most part, the protests were peaceful; [] the crowds chanted and behaved non-violently for about two hours on 26 November also known as, “the second Maribor uprising”.

Slovenian media sources reported that the protest only turned violent after the police started using physical force. Since , Slovenian authorities have attempted to rectify this discrimination by introducing a two-day training programme on policing in a multi-ethnic community.

Two notable demonstrations were the ones that occurred in Barcelona on 27 May , and in Madrid on 25 September Video footage published online showed the use of force by police against peaceful demonstrators on both occasions. Images show officers using handheld batons to repeatedly hit peaceful demonstrators some of them in the face and neck , rubber bullets, pepper spray, and the injuries caused.

Despite public outrage, the Spanish government did not make any attempt to reform policing and police mistreatment of the public; the opposite happened instead: in July , new reforms to the law on Public Security and the Criminal Code were enforced which limited the right to freedom of assembly and gave police officers the broad discretion to fine people who show a “lack of respect” towards them. The UN Human Rights Commission has expressed concern at the impact this legislation could have on human rights and police accountability.

Despite eyewitness testimony and medical reports confirming her injuries the Spanish Courts dismissed her claims on the grounds of insufficient evidence. They also condemned Spain for failing to investigate both Solomon’s assault and other racist and sexist acts of violence by police officers.

Under Spanish law, the police have the right to check the identity of anyone in a public space when there is a security concern. However, African and Latin American immigrants are most frequently targeted, often without a legitimate security concern.

According to David Grobgeld of the Center for a Stateless Society , since the REVA Legally Certain and Efficient Enforcement project had been applied in Sweden in an attempt to deport illegal immigrants, it had exposed the brutal and illegal methods used by police.

Officers have been shown to harass and racially profile non-white Swedes who often live in segregated suburbs. The marginalised such as the poor, homeless, people of colour, users of illicit drugs, and the mentally ill are facing Sweden as a Police State.

This has resulted in social disobedience with ordinary people in Sweden updating others on Twitter and Facebook on the whereabouts of police. In police shot a man in his own home in front of his wife in the town of Husby, a suburb of Stockholm. The police alleged the man had been wielding a machete and threatening them with it. The Stockholm riots were set off after the Husby shooting, where more than cars were torched. When the police showed up they had stones thrown at them. People said the police called them “monkeys” and used batons against them in the clash.

The police picked him up and in the process of his arrest broke his arm and locked him in a cell for nearly six hours with no medical aid. Socially excluded groups have been targeted and the result of police investigations often means the police officers are not deemed to be at fault. According to Grobgeld, the common denominator for people on a special police list is being or married to a Romani person.

A register of Romani people is kept by police. The police claim that they are “following orders”, the “rule of law” and “democratic process”. The police ordered the local security guards to stop the child. One guard tackled him to the ground and sat on him. He then pushed the child’s face into the pavement hard and covered his mouth.

The child can be heard screaming and gasping on the video that has gone viral on the internet. The police then put him in handcuffs. In the United Kingdom employed approximately , police officers in the 43 police forces of England, Wales and the British Transport Police , the lowest number since March Physical force is considered appropriate if:.

This requires a consideration of the degree of force used. Any excessive use of force by a police officer is unlawful and an officer could be prosecuted under criminal law. Despite an average reduction in deaths in custody since , a Public Confidence Survey revealed that public satisfaction following contact with the police was falling and that there was a greater willingness to file a complaint.

However, young people and people from black or minority ethnic groups were much less likely to come forward with complaints. While instances of police brutality in the UK is comparatively less than its US counterpart, there are nonetheless high profile incidents that have received wide media coverage.

In May , year-old Julian Cole was arrested outside a nightclub in Bedford by six police officers. The altercation left Cole in a vegetative state due to a severed spinal cord. Expert evidence indicated that Cole was struck with considerable force on his neck whilst his head was pulled back.

On 20 February , Bedfordshire Police Constables Christopher Thomas and Christopher Pitts, chased Faruk Ali before allegedly knocking him over and punching him in the face outside his family home.

Ali was described as an autistic man who had the mental age of a five-year-old. Following an investigation by the IPCC, the officers were fired following breaches of standards of professional conduct including standards of honesty, integrity, authority, equality, and diversity. On 13 July , year-old Mzee Mohammed died in police custody after being detained by Merseyside police at a Liverpool shopping centre.

Officers were called to the scene after Mzee was allegedly behaving aggressively and erratically while armed with a knife. After successfully detaining Mzee, the police called an ambulance after Mzee suffered a “medical episode” and was pronounced dead. Questions remain about how appropriate medical condition could have been administered given how the handcuffs would restrict breathing. The public incidents in which police judgments or actions have been called into question raised concerns about police accountability and governance.

On 16 March , people were arrested in Montreal at a protest against police brutality. In the United States, major political and social movements have involved excessive force by police, including the civil rights movement of the s, anti-war demonstrations, the War on Drugs , and the Global War on Terrorism. In , the UN Committee against Torture condemned police brutality and excessive use of force by law enforcement in the US, and highlighted the “frequent and recurrent police shootings or fatal pursuits of unarmed black individuals”.

Seven members of the United States Maryland military police were convicted for the Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse incidents in Iraq. The United States has developed a notorious reputation for cases of police brutality. The United States has a far higher number of police killings compared to other Western countries.

It was found through Kaiser Family Foundation research that almost half of Black Americans believe they have been victimized by law enforcement. According to a study published in The Lancet , more than 30, people were killed by police in the United States between and Breonna Taylor was killed at the age of 26 when police forced entry into the apartment as part of an investigation into drug dealing operations. Officers said that they announced themselves as police before forcing entry, but Walker said he did not hear any announcement, thought the officers were intruders, and fired a warning shot at them and hit Mattingly in the leg, and the officers fired 32 shots in return.

Walker was unhurt but Taylor was hit by six bullets and died. On 23 September, a state grand jury found the shooting of Taylor justified but indicted officer Hankison on three counts of wanton endangerment for endangering Taylor’s neighbors with his shots. On 25 May , George Floyd , an unarmed African American man, was murdered by a Minneapolis police officer, Derek Chauvin , who knelt on his neck for over nine minutes seconds while three other officers appeared to restrain his back and legs.

In the video, it appears George Floyd screaming “You are going to kill me man! Floyd’s murder, captured on video, triggered protests against racial discrimination across the US and the world.

The police in Brazil have a history of violence against the lower classes. In the latter half of the twentieth century, the country was heavily urbanized, while over its last military dictatorship state governments became responsible for Brazilian police forces experiencing which became heavily militarized.

The militarist approach to dealing with social issues led the country to its highest violence levels and in Brazil had more violent deaths than the Syrian Civil War , [] with most people fearing the police. A significant portion of the officers involved had already been charged for crimes previously. Rio de Janeiro is the city with the highest rates.

The ISP research reveals the disparities between the number of COVID mitigating actions 36 and police encounters in the first months of the pandemic. In May , they asked for the immediate suspension of police operations during the pandemic, indicating that continuing such operations would threaten life and dignity. In addition, they cited mortality rates, power abuse cases, and the propriety damages caused by the police raids during a deadly pandemic in poor neighborhoods. According to a witness, he lived in a place with a pool and a barbecue area, where he was with his cousins and friends when the police raid started.

According to the survivors, the boys went to the covered area when they noticed that the police helicopter started to shoot. This murder led people to protest in the streets and was the main argument for the ADPF [] petition, supported by Supreme Courts Minister Edson Fachin in August of the same year.

Afterward, the Court unanimously voted to maintain the decision, which would only authorize operations in “absolutely exceptional” cases that needed to be justified for the Public Ministry of the State of Rio de Janeiro. The Supreme Court also stated that in case of authorized operations in the pandemic, “Exceptional care should be taken, duly identified in writing by the competent authority, so as not to put in risk population’ provision of public health services and the humanitarian aid activities.

The crime scene must be preserved and must avoid body remotion by the excuse of supposed rescue. The technical-scientific police must document evidence, reports, and autopsy exams to ensure the possibility of independent review; Investigations must meet the Minnesota Protocol requirements.

It must be fast, effective, and complete well as independent, impartial, and transparent. The decision was celebrated by the group as a mark in the history of justice and lives in favela’s struggle. Furthermore, the criminality rates also decreased: a reduction of Nevertheless, the STF decision was not very well received by Rio de Janeiro’s police, who complained and accused the decision to make their work more difficult, even with the decrease of criminality.

They also did not always obey the order and did raid without the requirements the law demanded. On May 6, , Rio de Janeiro police killed 28 people in Jacarezinho Favela [] in a raid that was considered a success by police forces and the state of Rio’s government. Immediately after the slaughter, human rights activists denounced illegal actions as alteration of the crime scene, invasion of houses, in addition to non-compliance with the protocol demanded by the STF.

It is considered the biggest slaughter in the history of the city and is still under investigation. One month later, on June 08th, a young pregnant Black woman was killed by the police in another favela.

Kathlen Romeu, 24 years old, [] four months pregnant, was walking with her grandmother when a police officer shot her. According to the Brazilian Bar Association’s Humans Rights Commission OAB , the operation that killed Kathlen was illegal, and the police officer was hiding in a neighbor’s house to ambush criminals.

The unrest has since spread to many cities throughout Colombia. As of 12 September [update] , 13 people have died and over have been injured as part of the protests. In recent years, Chile ‘s police force Carabineros de Chile has been under investigation because of various cases of power abuse and police brutality, particularly towards students participating in riots for better education and the indigenous Mapuche people; countless cases of violence were enacted on this group for allegedly committing crimes; it was later discovered that some Carabineros officers were responsible for these crimes and blamed Mapuches.

One of the recent cases involving the Mapuche was Camilo Catrillanca’s death. The first reports of his death came from the Carabineros who claimed that Camilo shot at a police officer and others while being investigated for allegedly stealing three cars. After seeing Camilo “attacking” policemen with a gun in an attempt to escape, the Carabineros shot Camilo in the head and killed him.

It was later discovered that this was not what happened; a partner of the police officer that killed Camilo showed the video of the policeman killing him while he drove a tractor. Carabineros was asked why they did not have a recording of the officer being shot at by Camilo. The institution responded the officer destroyed the SD card because it had private photos and videos of his wife; most people were not satisfied with the answer. The policeman was later discharged and prosecuted.

During the —20 Chilean protests , Carabineros de Chile has caused hundreds of eye mutilations on protesters and random civilians with so-called “rubber” bullets and tear gas canisters. The persistence of police brutality in many nations can be linked to a collective failure of the criminal justice system. Governments enacting “hard on crime” policies, poor police training, and a lack of legal repercussions for officers who use excessive force against civilians all increase the likelihood of police brutality occurring.

Additionally, social issues like racial discrimination and poverty can exacerbate the brutality and its effects on marginalized communities. In nations with a reputation for having a high number of drug-related issues, including gang violence, drug trafficking, and overdose deaths, one common solution that government will enact is a collective campaign against drugs that spans the entirety of the state’s establishment. Changes to address these issues encompass education, bureaucracy, and, most notably, law enforcement policy and tactics.

Law enforcement agencies expand and receive more funding to attack the drug problems in communities. Acceptance of harsher policing tactics grows as well, as an “any means necessary” philosophy develops within the law enforcement community and the militarization of local police forces.

 
 

 

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